International cooperation in the Arctic: the experience of Yamal LNG and Arctic LNG 2

Against the background of the restructuring of the global energy landscape, intensified geopolitical conflicts and accelerated low-carbon transformation, the Arctic is becoming a key region for international energy cooperation. The purpose of this work is to identify sustainable mechanisms of international cooperation in large-scale Arctic projects using Yamal LNG and Arctic LNG 2 as examples. The materials and methods include analysis of open operational data (2017–2025), ownership structure, investment volumes, production capacities, export flows, technical solutions, as well as comparative and systemic approaches. The results show that Yamal LNG implemented an effective Russia–China–Europe trilateral cooperation model, with a 76% share of European exports in 2025. In turn, Arctic LNG 2, under the influence of sanctions, accelerated its reorientation to the Eastern market (about 90% of exports to Asia) and the Eastern supply chain. It is established that the key success factors are: global modular construction (85% of modules produced in China), the Arc7 ice-class fleet ensuring year-round navigation along the Northern Sea Route, long-term take-or-pay contracts, as well as financing and logistics substitution under external pressure. Conclusion: the proposed cooperation models and technical solutions (including GBS platforms) have proven their efficiency, reproducibility, and resilience to external shocks. The practical significance of the work lies in forming an empirical basis for risk management, optimization of cross-border interaction, and further development of the «Polar Silk Road» under changing geopolitical conditions. 

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